The ancient Maya

The rich findings of recent exploration and research are incorporated in this completely revised and greatly expanded edition of the standard work on the New World's most brilliant civilization--that of the Maya people of northern Central America and southern Mexico.

From its shadowy beginnings centuries before Christ, the history of the Maya is traced through its periods of cultural growth, mysterious decline, renewed prosperity, and eventual downfall following the Spanish Conquest. Ever since the awesome remains of this civilization, which spanned some 2,000 years, were discovered in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ancient Maya have attracted widespread fascination. Where had this civilization come from? How could the Maya have sustained themselves so successfully in such an inhospitable environment? What catastrophes had overwhelmed their long-abandoned cities? Today, scientific research in a variety of disciplines has made considerable progress in answering such questions.

Still, the allure of the Maya persists. Part of this fascination undoubtedly derives from the romantic image of a "lost civilization" that left scores of ruined cities deep in the jungle. But the more we learn of the Maya, the deeper becomes our respect and admiration. For these were a people of astonishing achievement: in mathematics, astronomy, calendrics, an writing systems; in technology, political organization, an commerce; and in sculpture, painting, and architecture.

Because of the veritable explosion of research on the Maya in recent years, we are for the first time beginning to understand the origins of the civilization and the reasons for both its flowering and its decline. New field discoveries, new technical advances, new successes in the decipherment of Maya writing, and new theoretical perspectives on the Maya past have made necessary this present edition of The Ancient Maya , which is more than one-fourth longer than the previous edition.

List of Tables	p. xii
List of Figures	p. xiii
List of Boxes	p. xxiii
List of Color Plates	p. xxvi
Preface	p. xxvii
Acknowledgments	p. xxxi
A Note on Names and Pronunciation	p. xxxiii
Introduction	p. 1
Discovery and Conquest by Europeans	p. 4
The Fate of the Maya Heritage	p. 6
The Meaning of Maya Civilization	p. 7
Foreign Domination and Rebirth of the Maya Heritage	p. 8
The Destruction of the Maya Heritage	p. 16
Chapter 1 The Setting of Maya Civilization	p. 23
Natural and Cultural Subdivisions of the Maya Area	p. 29
The Pacific Coastal Plain	p. 31
The Highlands	p. 34
The Lowlands	p. 41
The Consequences of Ecological Diversity	p. 53
Chapter 2 Archaeology and Maya Civilization	p. 57
Reconstructing the Past	p. 57
Changing Perspectives on the Maya Past	p. 60
Models of Past Societies	p. 71
Development of Complex Society and Civilization	p. 73
The Evolution of Civilizations	p. 75
Understanding the Evolution of Maya Civilization	p. 79
The Maya Economy	p. 80
Maya Social and Political Systems	p. 86
Maya Ideology and Religion	p. 91
The Ancient Maya World	p. 93
Elite and Nonelite Views of the Ancient Maya	p. 96
Chronology	p. 98
Chapter 3 History and Maya Civilization	p. 99
Time and Maya History	p. 99
Numerals	p. 100
The Calendar	p. 102
Measuring the Cycles of Time	p. 116
Recording the Cycles of Time	p. 118
Sources of Maya History	p. 120
The Maya Chronicles	p. 123
Ancient Writing Systems	p. 125
Pre-Columbian Maya Texts	p. 125
Ancient Maya Writing	p. 134
Milestones in Decipherment	p. 145
Contributions to Understanding the Ancient Maya	p. 147
History and Maya Civilization	p. 152
Chapter 4 The Origins of Maya Civilization	p. 153
The Chronology of Pre-Columbian Development	p. 153
The Archaic: Origins of Highland and Coastal Cultural Traditions	p. 157
The Early Preclassic: Agriculture, Warfare, and Evidence of Complex Society	p. 160
Preclassic Developments on the Gulf Coast of Mexico	p. 164
Preclassic Developments in Highland Mexico	p. 168
Summary of Archaic and Early Preclassic Developments	p. 173
Patterns in the Evolution of Mesoamerican Civilization	p. 174
Chapter 5 The Emergence of Maya Civilization in the Middle Preclassic	p. 177
The Emergence of Complex Societies	p. 178
Markers of Complex Societies	p. 179
The Pacific Plain in the Middle Preclassic	p. 185
Middle Preclassic Commodities and Monuments	p. 190
The Highlands in the Middle Preclassic	p. 194
The Lowlands in the Middle Preclassic	p. 201
Middle Preclassic Communities	p. 202
The Rise of Complex Society in the Lowlands	p. 207
Further Middle Preclassic Developments in the Lowlands	p. 214
Summary: The Middle Preclassic Precursors of Maya Civilization	p. 219
Chapter 6 The Origins of Maya States in the Late Preclassic	p. 223
Late Preclassic Maya Civilization and Writing Traditions	p. 223
The Late Preclassic Isthmian Tradition	p. 225
The Late Preclassic Southern Maya	p. 231
Highland-Lowland Interaction in the Preclassic	p. 251
The Maya Lowlands in the Late Preclassic	p. 251
Patterns of Late Preclassic Rulership	p. 269
Preclassic Developments in the Northern Lowlands	p. 276
Late Preclassic Lowland Maya Civilization	p. 278
Decline in the Terminal Preclassic	p. 279
Summary: Reconstructing the Maya Preclassic	p. 284
Chapter 7 The Expansion of Maya States in the Early Classic	p. 287
The Early Classic and the Origins of Maya Civilization	p. 287
The Southern Maya Area in the Classic Period	p. 288
The Classic Transition in the Lowlands	p. 294
The Expansion of States in the Maya Lowlands	p. 295
Competition and Warfare in the Classic Lowlands	p. 299
The Early Classic in the Maya Lowlands	p. 301
The Rise of Tikal in the Early Classic (ca. 100-378)	p. 310
Neighboring Centers in the Central Lowlands (ca. 328-416)	p. 317
Strangers in the Lowlands (378-456)	p. 321
Expansion into the Southeastern Area (406-37)	p. 333
Archaeology, History, and Copan's Dynastic Founding (ca. 400-470)	p. 342
The Founder of Quirigua	p. 351
The Rise of the Calakmul Dynasty (435-561)	p. 358
The Calakmul-Caracol Alliance	p. 361
Prosperity and Problems at Tikal (458-562)	p. 362
The Defeat of Tikal (562)	p. 369
Summary: The Early Classic States of the Maya Lowlands	p. 371
Chapter 8 The Apogee of Maya States in the Late Classic	p. 377
Ascendancy of Calakmul (562-695)	p. 379
The Resurgence of Tikal (682-768)	p. 390
Rise and Fall of the Petexbatun Kingdom (682-802)	p. 403
The End of the Calakmul Dynasty (695-909)	p. 413
Recovery and Decline at Caracol (798-859)	p. 415
The End of the Tikal Dynasty (768-869)	p. 417
Expansion of the Usumacinta Polities	p. 421
Expansion of the Western Polities	p. 451
Expansion of the Southeastern Polities	p. 476
Summary: Development of States in the Late Classic Lowlands	p. 495
Chapter 9 Transformations in the Terminal Classic	p. 499
Decline in the Classic Heartland	p. 499
The Downfall of Classic Maya States	p. 503
Explanations for the End of Maya States	p. 505
A Scenario for the Downfall of Classic Maya States	p. 513
Survival and Revival of Classic Enclaves	p. 520
Transformation in the Terminal Classic	p. 525
The Transitional Regional Traditions	p. 529
The Rise of the Northern Lowland Polities	p. 531
Polities in Northwestern Yucatan	p. 532
Polities in Northeastern Yucatan	p. 554
The Rise of Chichen Itza	p. 558
The Itza Economy	p. 570
The Itza State	p. 580
The Cult of K'uk'ulkan	p. 582
Changes in the Southern Maya Area	p. 583
Summary: Culmination and Transition in the Terminal Classic	p. 585
Chapter 10 Reformulation and Revival in the Postclassic	p. 589
The Downfall of Chichen Itza	p. 591
The Rise of Mayapan	p. 592
The Mayapan State	p. 601
The Fall of Mayapan and the Rise of Petty States	p. 603
The East Coast of Yucatan	p. 604
Revival of Fortunes in the Central Lowlands	p. 613
The Southern Maya Area in the Postclassic	p. 618
Summary: Reformulation and Revival in the Postclassic	p. 626
Overview: Changing Perspectives on Maya Civilization	p. 628
Chapter 11 The Ancient Maya Economy	p. 631
The Political Economy	p. 632
The Social Economy	p. 635
Mobilization of Labor	p. 636
Ancient Maya Subsistence	p. 637
Reconstructing the Patterns of Subsistence	p. 648
Production of Goods	p. 651
Distribution of Goods	p. 657
The Importance of Trade	p. 660
Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Long-Distance Trade	p. 661
Chapter 12 The Organization of Maya Society	p. 665
Reconstructing the Social Landscape	p. 665
Maya Society in the Pre-Columbian Era	p. 666
Marriage and the Family	p. 675
Ancient Maya Households	p. 677
Settlement in the Maya Lowlands	p. 682
Social Stratification	p. 690
Residential and Descent Groups	p. 692
Residential Groups and the House Model	p. 695
Reconstructing the Political Landscape	p. 696
Divine Kings and the Hierarchy of Power	p. 696
Maya Polities	p. 703
Cycles of Growth and Decline	p. 708
State Organizational Models	p. 711
The Basis of Political Power	p. 714
Chapter 13 Maya Ideology and Religion	p. 719
Maya World View	p. 719
Origins of Maya Ideology	p. 720
Transformations by Outsiders	p. 722
Cosmology	p. 726
Maya Deities	p. 735
Rituals and Ceremonies	p. 745
Royal Rituals of the Classic Period	p. 747
Rituals of the Postclassic and Conquest Periods	p. 748
The Ideological Foundations of Maya Civilization	p. 755
Epilogue: The Conquest of the Maya	p. 757
First Contacts, 1502-25	p. 758
The Period of Conquest, 1524-1697	p. 762
The Subjugation of the Southern Maya by Pedro de Alvarado, 1524-27	p. 763
The Subjugation of Yucatan by the Montejos, 1527-46	p. 766
The Independent Itza, 1525-1696	p. 772
The Subjugation of the Itza, 1696-97	p. 776
Appendix Dates for K'atun and Half-K'atun Endings	p. 779
Bibliographic Summaries	p. 785

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