摘录

Chapter One     For much of this century, Arkansas has been ridiculed as America's Dogpatch, a poor, rural home for yokels, a place where hounds amble along dirt roads, chickens peck for bugs in the yard, and well-to-do families flaunt Sears washing machines on their front porches. Perennially, we are at the bottom of every economic indicator, fighting Mississippi for forty-ninth place. Our population is less than any southern state, and our land area the slightest of any state on the continent west of the Mississippi River. No airline uses Arkansas as a hub. The federal interstate highway system bypasses much of the state. Even the name of our capital begins with the word "little."     At the state university in Fayetteville, a menacing boar from the Ozarks--the razorback hog--was adopted as a symbol of the school. A hog call became Arkansas's war cry. At sporting events, the student body still rises as one, hands fluttering skyward, to issue the blood-curdling refrain: "Whooooooooo, pig! Soooo-ey!"     In the days when radio was the main form of home entertainment, Arkansas was a frequent butt of humor. We were the target of gentle yarns spun by a native son, the comedian Bob Burns. A popular voice in the 1930s, Burns talked of his barefoot relatives. Arkansas was the source of cracker-barrel philosophy broadcast by Lum and Abner, who held court at their Jot 'Em Down Store in the mythical Arkansas village of Pine Ridge. Sponsored each week by Horlick's Malted Milk, Lum and Abner created a world of bucolic characters, peopled by the likes of kindly Grandpappy Spears.     Sometimes, the Arkansas jokes took malevolent form. H. L. Mencken, the iconoclastic columnist for the Baltimore Sun papers, mocked Arkansas mercilessly in the 1930s. "Only on the records of lynchings and open-air baptisms is the state near the top," he wrote. Mencken described Arkansas as "the worst American state" and wondered "why so many of its farmers are miserable, exploited, chronically half-starved share-croppers without reserves and without hope." The state senate responded by passing resolutions calling for Mencken to be deported from the United States. The Arkansas chapter of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan was not so diplomatic; it denounced Mencken as a "moral pervert."     Arkansas was still reeling from the Great Depression when the cartoonist Al Capp created Li'l Abner, a comic strip set in Dogpatch and featuring such curious characters as pipe-smoking Mammy Yokum; Daisy Mae, a backwoods beauty in tattered dress; and Li'l Abner himself--well--intentioned but slow-witted, a mountain manchild bursting out of his overalls. Arkansas was assumed to be the locale, and entrepreneurs later encouraged the parody by developing a Dogpatch, USA, theme park in the Ozarks near Harrison.     Not to be outdone by this secular attraction, Gerald L. K. Smith, an evangelical, rabble-rousing anti-Semite--Mencken called him "the champion boob bumper of all epochs"--chose another Ozark town, Eureka Springs, to build a glistening white statue of Jesus, seven stories high, overlooking the site for Smith's ersatz Oberammergau passion play, a drama blaming the Jews for the crucifixion of the savior. Down the road, Smith purveyed a line of Christian trinkets at his Christ Only Art Gallery.     Strains of Protestant fundamentalism ran through the state like mighty rivers. The Southern Baptists have always been the strongest denomination. Frowning upon the legalization of alcohol and the mingling of races, the Baptists dictated the mores of numerous Arkansas communities for years, keeping them dry and segregated. The hardshell arbiters of Arkansas society were reinforced by the Church of Christ, a faith holding even sterner views of earthly pleasures. In towns under the watch of the Church of Christ, musical instruments were considered tools of the devil and dancing illicit. During the Cold War period, Harding College, a Church of Christ institution in Searcy, sponsored a "National Education Program" to spread warnings of communist peril lurking in the civil rights movement and among the ranks of peace demonstrators.     Despite our image as a state full of right-wing yahoos, Arkansas had its flirtations on the other side of the political spectrum. In Mena, a west Arkansas town near the Oklahoma border, Commonwealth College cropped up in the 1920s like a red wildflower in a field of cotton. The school was steeped in socialist doctrine and produced a number of graduates who served as labor organizers and foot soldiers for the Loyalist cause in the Spanish Civil War.     One of the school's leaders was Claude Williams, a renegade Presbyterian minister. Williams said his faith in Jesus led him to convictions contrary to the Arkansas norm. "I cannot believe in race prejudice or class antagonism and exploitation," he declared, and he kept on his office wall pictures of his heroes: Jesus, Lenin, and Eugene V. Debs. When Williams intervened in a farmworkers dispute involving the death of a black laborer, he was beaten so badly by a vigilante mob that he moved to other pursuits. Commonwealth was finally shut down by the authorities in 1940 on the grounds that the school was subversive.     One of Commonwealth's most famous alumni, Orval E. Faubus, would deny his enrollment at the school after he became a major figure in Arkansas politics. Though he disavowed it, Faubus carried leftist baggage in his background. His father, Sam Faubus, was an exuberant prophet who roamed the northwestern corner of the state on behalf of socialism during the early years of the century. When Sam Faubus named his son Orval, he chose Eugene for his middle name in homage to Eugene Debs, leader of the Socialist Party of America     Populist movements flourished in pockets of the state. A radical farmers organization, the Brothers of Freedom, enlisted forty thousand members in Arkansas at the height of its power in the 1880s. They were the precursors of the Southern Tenant Farmers Union, a group started in northeastern Arkansas in 1934 but beaten down within a few years by the powerful landowners of the region.     At the beginning of the twentieth century, Arkansas elected colorful populist Jeff Davis governor. Davis railed against the establishment, denouncing the banking interests in Little Rock as "high-collared roosters" who dressed in "collars so high they can't see the sun except at high noon." Davis's enemies fought insult with invective. The Helena World, a conservative newspaper in a Mississippi River Delta town, dismissed Davis as a crude aberration out of the hills, "a carrot-headed, red-faced, loud-mouthed, strong-limbed, ox-driving mountaineer lawyer, and a friend of the fellow who brews forty-rod bug-juice."     We may have been a poor state, but we were rich with personalities. In 1940, the year I was born, Arkansas's per capita income was only 42 percent of the national average; 78 percent of our people lived either on farms or in towns with populations of less than 2,500. We had fewer white-collar workers than almost any other state.     We were an agrarian society, perhaps not too far removed from the caricatures of Mencken and Capp. Along the Mississippi River, in the eastern part of the state, cotton planters reigned over duchies in the Delta. The fertility of the land was the envy of the agricultural world. The dark alluvial soil produced bumper crops and a less admirable by-product--an Old South feudal system where wealthy landowners ruled sharecroppers and itinerant farm workers living in peonage to the plantation.     But our Delta, a relentlessly flat 150-mile corridor between Jonesboro and Lake Village, occupies only a sliver of the state. The topography of Arkansas--and the way of life--shifts dramatically away from the river. The ground begins to rise near my little hometown of Bradford to meet the foothills and mountains of the Ozarks, where the land is as mean as a miser.     When I was growing up, the region served as the home of the hill people, the small farmers who, each planting season, engaged in battles with the elements without the benefit of armies of Delta field hands. They lived in reclusive communities, loyal to family and church and suspicious of strangers.     From the time the state was founded in 1836, a dichotomy has existed between the Delta planter class and the populist hill folk. The differences have been played out in regional rivalries and clashes in the state legislature, but there is a third distinctive element in the state's demographics.     As the Ozarks fall away to the rolling countryside in the southern part of the state, the terrain is dominated by vast stretches of timberland. Here, lumber replaces cotton and soybeans as the cash crop, and local society bears little resemblance to either the Delta or the Ozarks.     Below the Ouachita mountain range, citizens seem estranged from the rest of the state, carrying grudges based on a belief that their region is systematically shortchanged in Little Rock when public funds are parceled out for highways and other projects. The people feel a closer kinship to the wildcatters of Tulsa and the small ranchers of Tyler, Texas.     Wedged between Tennessee and Mississippi to the east and Texas and Oklahoma to the west, our state is neither southern nor western. Though Arkansas belonged to the Confederacy, we have little of the "moonlight and magnolias" mystique that characterizes our neighbors who still worship the Lost Cause. In places like Texarkana, words are more likely to be pronounced with an east Texas twang than with the softer southern accent heard across the river from Memphis. And in the Ozarks, forms of Elizabethan English can still be heard, spoken in cadences so odd and countrified they sound as though they belong on the stage of the Grand Ole Opry.     Local boosters like to call Arkansas the Wonder State. It's no wonder we sometimes suffer from an inferiority complex and an identity crisis. Arkansas politics reflected our geography. We were part of the eleven-state monolith once known as the "Solid South," a bloc that could be counted upon to deliver its electoral votes every four years to the Democratic nominee for president. Allegiance to the Democratic Party was an outgrowth of the Reconstruction and lingering resentment against the Republican administrations for imposing severe hardship on the Confederate states following the Civil War. Once the northern rulers and their local sympathizers, known contemptuously as "carpetbaggers and scalawags," were routed, southerners regained control of their governments. Across the region, voters became fierce Democrats-but for few reasons that would attract them to the national Democratic Party today. It was a reaction against the party of Lincoln, and these early Southern Democrats moved vigorously to disenfranchise black voters and resegregate the races. Their hegemony would last for most of the twentieth century.     Arkansas became a Democratic stronghold, yet we were different from the rest of Dixie. Our politics were not as poisoned by race as the states with large concentrations of black residents. Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina spawned generations of demagogues, leaders who evoked fears of a black uprising and a new Reconstruction. Although many claimed to be populists, they perverted the ideology by pitting poor whites against poor blacks. In elections where blacks were unable to vote, racists such as Theodore G. Bilbo thrived in Mississippi during the first half of the century, and a modern generation of segregationists, personified by George C. Wallace of Alabama, kept up the resistance to black rights. In Arkansas, we had only one modern champion of segregation, Faubus; others who coveted Faubus's mantle were unsuccessful.     Compared to the rest of the South, Arkansas has always had a relatively small black population (less than 16 percent in the 1990 census). As a result, Arkansas escaped much of the racial turmoil of the midcentury.     Rather than suppressing the potential power of blacks at the ballot box, Arkansas plantation owners actually encouraged their employees to register to vote. The system produced impressive results in the counties of east Arkansas; like eastern Europe under dictatorship, 100 percent of the votes went to the candidate of the establishment in many precincts. Landowners doubled as political bosses. They paid the poll taxes for their employees, told their workers how to vote, and ensured a heavy turnout on election days. The Arkansas Gazette reported in 1948: "Plantation owners in the Delta counties usually control the votes of their many tenants who cast their ballots in boxes set up in the owners' commissaries."     In Arkansas, the poll tax--eventually outlawed as election reforms were forced on the South--actually served as a device to discourage poor whites from voting. Fearing an uprising by populist interests, embodied in what was known as the "sawmill vote," the establishment laid obstacles in their path by maintaining the tax.     We had democracy in Arkansas, but it was run by an oligarchy. In an assessment of Arkansas in his famous 1947 travelogue of the nation, Inside U.S.A., John Gunther listed the powers in Arkansas: Delta planters, the Baptist Church, the timber empires, and the Arkansas Power & Light Co. I would have added the railroads, and the statewide associations of sheriffs and county judges. * * * I grew up with the legend of an Arkansas political machine, as though some grand master in Little Rock orchestrated events. In fact, the Arkansas machine could never compare with the big-city political operations fueled with patronage and dependent on military-like discipline, where loyalty flowed from block worker to precinct captain to ward chairman to party boss. Organized labor, an important component in Democratic politics, was practically nonexistent in Arkansas until after World War II. In Arkansas, the party was a confederation of county organizations, controlled by local leaders watching out for the interests of the establishment and banding together behind favorite candidates.     Sheriff Marlin Hawkins of Conway County became one of the most famous practitioners of Arkansas machine politics. It was said Hawkins could deliver the precise number of votes needed to swing any election in his county. He ran the place for years. A charming man who started his career as a social worker, Hawkins befriended the population of the county, which was practically all white, in the hills north of Little Rock. Hawkins had one eye. He smiled often as his carrot and used law enforcement as his stick. By passing out favors judiciously, he amassed a reliable following. Hawkins savored his reputation as a kingmaker and when he wrote his memoirs, he entitled the book, not entirely facetiously, How I Stole Elections.     Yell County, in the Ouachita forests west of Conway, also had a reputation as a machine county, controlled by Sheriff Earl Ladd, a respected figure in criminal justice circles around the state. On the other hand, Garland County was run for years by the redoubtable mayor of Hot Springs, Leo P. McLaughlin, renowned for stuffing ballot boxes and tolerating illegal casinos in his city. In White County, my home, the power brokers were the Abbington brothers from Beebe; A. P. Mills of Kensett, the father of Congressman Wilbur Mills; and Truman Baker, a well-connected auto dealer in Searcy.     The local leaders were adept at the art of quid pro quo and often used roads as a bargaining tool. A construction project to blacktop a rural road meant jobs, and highway improvements enhanced the quality of life in the area. Politicians who could deliver road contracts were assured the support of the county bosses, who, in turn, convinced voters to back these chosen candidates because "community interests" were at stake. The understandings usually produced lopsided electoral results, and added to the appearance of a machine.     But alliances shifted from election to election. As Neal R. Pierce wrote in his chapter on Arkansas in The Deep South States of America in 1974, "Because the conservatives controlled Arkansas so completely, its politics clear into the 1940s were characterized by a fluid factionalism in which virtually no serious issues were discussed."     Arkansas Democrats had a tradition that no one served more than two consecutive two-year terms as governor. When Carl Bailey tried to defy the unwritten rule in 1940, he was beaten. There was an expression I often heard while growing up: "He needs to move on, he's had his two terms." We had a succession of new governors every four years during my boyhood: Bailey, Homer Adkins, Ben Laney, Sid McMath. Francis Cherry served only two years before he was ousted in 1954 by Faubus, who broke tradition by winning six straight terms.     While big-city machines tended to suppress new faces, forcing ambitious young politicians to earn their stripes by working their way up from minor posts, the Arkansas system was wide open to fresh blood. Little-known candidates could be transformed into leaders overnight in a state where politics were highly personalized and divided by the Delta, the hills, and the forests.     In Southern Politics, V. O. Key's study of the region in 1949, the author found that "in Arkansas, more than in almost any other Southern state, social and economic issues of significance to the people have lain ignored in the confusion and paralysis of disorganized factional politics." Arkansas politicians, Key said, drew "their strength in particular areas in terms of their relations with local leaders rather than from the fact that their policy positions conflicted or agreed with local interests."     During this period, when county leaders were switching from one politician to another with astonishing regularity in races on the state level, Arkansas's political stability was concentrated in our congressional delegation. Enjoying a devotion Arkansas rarely extended to local officeholders, the same senators and congressmen were returned to Washington, election after election. I believe there was a genuine desire by the Arkansas electorate to send our very best leaders to Washington and to keep them there, to show the nation we were not all a bunch of hillbillies, hunkered around the campfire chewing on raw meat. Outrageous clowns might occupy some county offices in Arkansas, but on the national level, our leaders were serious, thoughtful men who were a match for anyone in Congress. Coming from a state with no Republican opposition, they were able to build longevity in an era when seniority was the most formidable weapon in Congress. And I think they, too, were acutely aware of Arkansas's unflattering reputation, and worked hard to bring prestige to the state.     As Irish New Yorkers once boasted that their city wore its flamboyant mayor, Jimmy Walker, like a rose in its lapel, Arkansas's congressional delegation brightened our state like boutonnieres.     Long before Clinton went to the White House, Arkansas exercised big muscle in Washington. When I became politically active, our small, disadvantaged state seemed to control Congress. Besides Fulbright, who became chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, we were blessed with John L. McClellan, who headed several panels during his career and wound up chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee. In the House, Wilbur Mills, head of the House Ways and Means Committee in the days before the strengths of chairmen were diluted by reform, was arguably more powerful than the Speaker. At the same time, Oren Harris served as chairman of the House Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee. We boasted four chairmen, and the rest of our congressmen held key assignments on other committees.     Back home in Arkansas, we took pride in Fulbright's erudition and McClellan's investigation of the mob. We experienced vicarious pleasure when Mills outwitted the wise guys; we marveled that he wrote the tax laws for the country. Our men in Washington were the stars in our little universe, and their names commanded respect wherever politics was a topic.     Tammany clubhouses and precinct headquarters were foreign to Arkansas. Our general stores served as our political forums, places where farmers gathered to buy goods, engage in conversation, and pass judgment on current events. The dialogue may not have sparkled with the sophistication of a Georgetown salon, but the discussions were earnest. In the days before television brought faraway athletic contests into our living rooms, politics was our sport. We spoke of our elected officials with familiarity--not only the county judges, but United States senators, too. There was a sense at the general store that John McClellan was just as likely to walk in as the local justice of the peace.     It was an intimate political culture, where promising newcomers could make valuable connections and establish names for themselves quickly. The last generation born into these times was the one including Bill Clinton and me. The system enabled me, an unknown fellow from the little town of Bradford, to wield uncommon clout in Arkansas when I was still in my twenties, and it made possible Clinton's meteoric rise. But in the years since Clinton and I broke into politics, the system has undergone dramatic change, and the homespun world we grew up in has been lost forever. Copyright (c) 1998 Jim McDougal and Curtis Wilkie. All rights reserved.