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摘要
摘要
Recently updated, this comprehensive handbook explains the aerodynamics of helicopter flight, as well helicopter maneuvers, unlike many aviation training manuals which are strictly how-to guides. Beginning aerodynamics, each step of the process is fully illustrated and thoroughly explained--from the physics advanced operations to helicopter design and performance--providing helicopter pilots with a sound to base their in-flight decisions. Containing discussions on the NOTAR (no tail rotor) system, strakes, principles of airspeed and high-altitude operations, this revised edition also includes the latest procedures Federal Aviation Administration.
目录
Foreword | p. xi |
Preface | p. xii |
1 Physics | p. 1 |
Newton's Laws | p. 1 |
Newton's First Law | p. 1 |
Newton's Second Law | p. 2 |
Newton's Third Law | p. 3 |
Conclusion | p. 3 |
Mathematical Terms | p. 3 |
Velocity | p. 3 |
Acceleration | p. 3 |
Equilibrium | p. 4 |
Gravitational Forces | p. 4 |
Centripetal Force | p. 5 |
Vector Quantities | p. 5 |
Moments and Couples | p. 6 |
Moments | p. 6 |
Couples | p. 6 |
Energy | p. 6 |
Pressure Energy | p. 6 |
Dynamic (Kinetic) Energy | p. 7 |
Units of Measurement | p. 7 |
Graphs | p. 8 |
Review 1 p. 10 | |
2 The Atmosphere | p. 11 |
Atmospheric Pressure | p. 11 |
Air Temperature | p. 11 |
Combined Effects | p. 12 |
Moisture Content | p. 12 |
The Standard Atmosphere (ISA) | p. 12 |
Pressure Altitude | p. 13 |
Density Altitude | p. 13 |
Summary | p. 13 |
Operational Considerations | p. 14 |
Review 2 p. 14 | |
3 Lift | p. 15 |
Definitions | p. 15 |
The Lift Formula | p. 18 |
Dynamic Energy | p. 20 |
Summary | p. 20 |
Indicated Airspeed and True Airspeed | p. 21 |
Center of Pressure | p. 22 |
Aerodynamic Center | p. 24 |
Review 3 p. 26 | |
4 Drag | p. 27 |
Types of Drag | p. 28 |
Parasite Drag | p. 28 |
Profile Drag | p. 29 |
Form Drag | p. 29 |
Skin Friction | p. 30 |
Induced Drag | p. 31 |
Tip Vortices | p. 33 |
Effect of Airspeed on Induced Drag | p. 34 |
Effect of Aspect Ratio | p. 34 |
Methods to Reduce Induced Drag | p. 35 |
Wash-out | p. 35 |
Tip Design | p. 35 |
Total Drag Curve | p. 36 |
Conclusion | p. 37 |
Review 4 p. 38 | |
5 Lift/Drag Ratio | p. 39 |
Best (or Maximum) L/D Ratio | p. 40 |
Other Factors Influencing L/D Ratio | p. 41 |
Conclusion | p. 41 |
Review 5 p. 42 | |
6 Aerodynamic Forces | p. 43 |
Definitions | p. 43 |
Rotor Systems | p. 45 |
Introduction | p. 45 |
Rotational Airflow (Vr) | p. 46 |
Blade Angle of Attack | p. 46 |
Induced Flow | p. 47 |
Airflow Caused by Aircraft Velocity | p. 48 |
The Forces | p. 48 |
Total Rotor Thrust | p. 49 |
Rotor Drag (Torque) | p. 49 |
Angle of Attack and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio | p. 50 |
Induced Flow and the Rotor Thrust/Rotor Drag Ratio | p. 50 |
Inflow Angle | p. 51 |
The Force Opposing Weight | p. 52 |
Factors Influencing Rotor Thrust | p. 53 |
Air Density | p. 53 |
Rotor rpm | p. 54 |
Blade Angle | p. 54 |
Disc Area | p. 54 |
Significant Aspects of High Inertia Blades | p. 55 |
Conclusion | p. 55 |
Review 6 p. 56 | |
7 Rotor Blade Airfoils | p. 57 |
Drag Factors | p. 57 |
Stress Factors | p. 58 |
Effect of Local Air Velocity on Blade Design | p. 59 |
Blade Tip Speeds | p. 59 |
Development in Blade Design | p. 60 |
Review 7 p. 60 | |
8 Rotor Drag (Torque) | p. 61 |
Disc Loading Changes | p. 61 |
Changes in Gross Weight | p. 62 |
Changes in Altitude | p. 62 |
Changes in Configuration | p. 62 |
Ground Effect | p. 62 |
Translational Lift | p. 64 |
Summary | p. 65 |
Review 8 p. 66 | |
9 The Anti-Torque Rotor | p. 67 |
Anti-Torque Functions | p. 67 |
Mechanical Considerations | p. 68 |
Anti-Torque and Demand for Power | p. 68 |
Effect of the Wind | p. 69 |
Translating Tendency (Tail Rotor Drift) | p. 70 |
Rolling Tendency | p. 71 |
Tail Rotor Flapping | p. 71 |
Shrouded Tail Rotors | p. 72 |
Tail Rotor Design | p. 72 |
Other Methods of Anti-Torque Control | p. 72 |
Strakes and Anti-Torque | p. 73 |
Tail Rotor Failure | p. 74 |
Review 9 p. 76 | |
10 Controls and Their Effects | p. 77 |
Collective Control | p. 77 |
Cyclic Control | p. 78 |
Effect of Controls on Blade Lead-Lag Behavior | p. 78 |
Mean Lag Position | p. 78 |
The Four Main Causes of Movement about the Lead/Lag Hinge | p. 78 |
Conservation of Angular Momentum (Coriolis Effect) | p. 78 |
Hookes Joint Effect | p. 79 |
Periodic Drag Changes | p. 80 |
Random Changes | p. 80 |
Review 10 p. 80 | |
11 The Hover | p. 81 |
Hover Our-of Ground Effect (OGE) and In-Ground Effect (IGE) | p. 81 |
Factors Affecting Ground Effect | p. 82 |
Helicopter Height Above Ground Level | p. 82 |
Density Altitude and Gross Weight | p. 82 |
Gross Weight and Power Required | p. 83 |
Nature of the Surface | p. 83 |
Slope | p. 83 |
Wind Effect | p. 84 |
Confined Areas - Recirculation | p. 84 |
Factors Determining the Degree of Recirculation | p. 84 |
Over-Pitching | p. 85 |
Review 11 p. 86 | |
12 Forward Flight | p. 87 |
Three Basic Aspects of Horizontal Flight | p. 89 |
Tilting the Disc with Cyclic | p. 89 |
An Alternate Explanation of Cyclic Action | p. 91 |
Dissymmetry of Lift | p. 91 |
Eliminating Dissymmetry of Lift | p. 92 |
Blow-Back (Flap Back) | p. 94 |
Blow-back (Flap-Back) When Using Collective | p. 95 |
Summary | p. 96 |
Designs that Reduce Flapping Amplitude | p. 96 |
Delta-3 Hinges | p. 96 |
Offset Pitch Horns | p. 97 |
Reverse Flow | p. 98 |
Translational Lift | p. 99 |
Transverse Flow Effect | p. 101 |
Review 12 p. 102 | |
13 Power, Range and Endurance | p. 103 |
Power | p. 103 |
Ancillary Power | p. 103 |
Profile Power | p. 103 |
Induced Power | p. 104 |
Parasite Power | p. 104 |
The Total Horsepower Required Curve (the HPR) | p. 105 |
Attitude | p. 106 |
Weight | p. 107 |
Slingload and Parasite Drag Items | p. 107 |
Flying the Helicopter for Range | p. 108 |
Effect of the Wind | p. 109 |
Engine Considerations | p. 110 |
Range Summary | p. 110 |
Flying the Helicopter for Endurance | p. 111 |
Endurance Summary | p. 111 |
Review 13 p. 112 | |
14 Climbing and Descending | p. 113 |
Climbing | p. 113 |
The Horsepower Available Curve (The HPA) | p. 114 |
Factors Affecting the Horsepower Available Curve | p. 114 |
Altitude | p. 114 |
Density Altitude | p. 115 |
Leaning the Mixture | p. 115 |
Collective Setting | p. 115 |
Rate of Climb | p. 115 |
Angle of Climb | p. 116 |
Effect of Lowering Horsepower Available Curve | p. 116 |
Summary | p. 117 |
Effect of the Wind | p. 117 |
Climb Performance Summary | p. 118 |
Descending | p. 118 |
Angle of Descent | p. 119 |
Effect of the Wind on Descents | p. 120 |
Descent Performance Summary | p. 121 |
Review 14 p. 122 | |
15 Maneuvers | p. 123 |
Turning | p. 123 |
Rate of Turn | p. 124 |
Radius of Turn | p. 125 |
Rate and Radius Interaction | p. 125 |
The Steep Turn | p. 125 |
Power Requirement | p. 126 |
The Climbing Turn | p. 127 |
The Descending Turn | p. 127 |
Effect of Altitude on Rate of Turn and Radius of Turn | p. 127 |
Effect of Changes in Gross Weight on Rate and Radius | p. 128 |
Effect of the Wind on Rate and Radius | p. 128 |
Effect of the Wind on Indicated Airspeed and Translational Lift | p. 129 |
Effect of Slingloads | p. 130 |
Effect of Slipping and Skidding | p. 131 |
Pull-Out from a Descent | p. 131 |
Review 15 p. 132 | |
16 The Flare | p. 133 |
Initial Action | p. 133 |
Flare Effects | p. 133 |
Thrust Reversal | p. 134 |
Increasing Total Rotor Thrust | p. 134 |
Increasing Rotor rpm | p. 134 |
Management of Collective | p. 135 |
Review 16 p. 136 | |
17 Retreating Blade Stall | p. 137 |
Effect of Increasing Airspeed on Stall Angle | p. 137 |
Factors Affecting the Advancing Blade | p. 138 |
Symptoms of Retreating Blade Stall | p. 138 |
Recovery | p. 139 |
Factors Influencing V[subscript ne] | p. 140 |
Conclusion | p. 141 |
Review 17 p. 142 | |
18 Autorotation | p. 143 |
Initial Aircraft Reaction | p. 143 |
The Lift/Drag Ratio and Forces Involved | p. 143 |
The Stalled Region | p. 144 |
The Driven (Propeller) Region | p. 145 |
The Driving (Autorotative) Region | p. 145 |
Combined Effects of All Regions | p. 146 |
Autorotation and Airspeed | p. 148 |
Combined Effect | p. 149 |
Effect of Forward Speed on the Three Regions | p. 150 |
Effect of Airspeed Changes on Rotor rpm | p. 150 |
Autorotation Range and Endurance | p. 150 |
Effect of Altitude on Range and Endurance | p. 151 |
Effect of Gross Weight on Range and Endurance | p. 151 |
Effect of Parasite Drag and Slingloads on Range and Endurance | p. 152 |
Touchdown | p. 152 |
Loss of Power at Low Heights | p. 153 |
Factors Influencing Rotor rpm Decay When the Engine Fails | p. 153 |
Combination of Airspeed and Height Best Avoided | p. 153 |
Review 18 p. 156 | |
19 Hazardous Flight Conditions | p. 157 |
Vortex Ring State | p. 157 |
Effect on the Root Section of the Blade | p. 158 |
Effect on the Tip Section of the Blade | p. 158 |
Flight Conditions Likely to Lead to Vortex Ring State | p. 160 |
Symptoms of Vortex Ring State | p. 160 |
Recovery from Vortex Ring State | p. 161 |
Tail Rotor Vortex Ring State | p. 161 |
Ground Resonance | p. 162 |
Causes of Ground Resonance | p. 162 |
Factors that May Cause Ground Resonance | p. 163 |
Rotor Head Vibrations | p. 163 |
Fuselage Factors | p. 163 |
Ground Resonance Recovery Action | p. 164 |
Blade Sailing | p. 164 |
Dynamic Rollover | p. 165 |
Factors Influencing the Critical Angle | p. 165 |
Cyclic Limitations | p. 166 |
Mast Bumping | p. 167 |
Avoiding Mast Bumping | p. 169 |
Recovery from Low and Zero g | p. 169 |
Mast Bumping Summary | p. 169 |
Exceeding Rotor rpm Limits | p. 169 |
Reasons for High Rotor rpm Limits | p. 169 |
Engine Considerations | p. 169 |
Blade Attachment Stress | p. 169 |
Sonic Problems | p. 170 |
Reasons for Low Rotor rpm Limits | p. 170 |
Insufficient Centrifugal Force | p. 170 |
Reduced Tail Rotor Thrust | p. 170 |
Rotor Stalls | p. 170 |
Recovery from Low Rotor rpm | p. 171 |
Review 19 p. 172 | |
20 Helicopter Design and Components | p. 173 |
Transmission | p. 173 |
Main Rotor Gear Box | p. 173 |
Freewheeling Unit | p. 174 |
Drive Shafts | p. 174 |
Tail Rotor Gear Box | p. 174 |
Rotor Brake | p. 174 |
Clutch | p. 174 |
Chip Detectors | p. 175 |
Governors | p. 175 |
Swashplate (Control Orbit) | p. 176 |
Phase Lag | p. 177 |
Advance Angle | p. 177 |
Rotor Blades | p. 179 |
Chordwise Blade Balancing | p. 180 |
Spanwise Blade Balancing | p. 180 |
Trim Controls | p. 180 |
Bias Control | p. 180 |
Electronic Servo Systems | p. 180 |
Tail Rotors | p. 181 |
Tail Rotor Flapping | p. 181 |
Tail Rotor Rotation | p. 181 |
Helicopter Vibrations | p. 181 |
Types of Vibrations | p. 182 |
Vertical Vibrations | p. 182 |
Lateral Vibrations | p. 183 |
Combined Vertical and Lateral Vibrations | p. 183 |
High Frequency Vibrations | p. 183 |
Engine Vibrations | p. 184 |
Remedial Action by the Pilot | p. 184 |
Control Functions | p. 184 |
Collective | p. 184 |
Twist Grip Throttle | p. 184 |
Engine Cooling | p. 185 |
Carburetor Icing | p. 185 |
Dual Tachometer Instruments | p. 186 |
Rotor Stabilizing Design Systems | p. 187 |
The Bell Stabilizing Bar | p. 187 |
The Hiller System | p. 187 |
The Underslung Rotor System | p. 188 |
Rotorless Anti-Torque System | p. 189 |
Advantages of the Notar System | p. 189 |
Components | p. 189 |
Air Intake | p. 190 |
Engine-driven Fan | p. 190 |
Slots | p. 190 |
Direct Jet Thruster | p. 191 |
Vertical Stabilizers | p. 191 |
Undercarriages | p. 192 |
Skids | p. 192 |
Wheels | p. 192 |
Oleo (Shock) Struts | p. 193 |
Review 20 p. 195 | |
21 Stability | p. 195 |
Static Stability | p. 195 |
Dynamic Stability | p. 195 |
Stability in the Three Planes of Movement | p. 196 |
Longitudinal Stability | p. 197 |
Longitudinal Stability Aids | p. 197 |
Lateral Stability | p. 198 |
Directional Stability | p. 199 |
Directional Stability Aids | p. 200 |
Cross Coupling with Lateral Stability | p. 200 |
Offset Flapping Hinges | p. 200 |
Review 21 p. 202 | |
22 Special Helicopter Techniques | p. 203 |
Crosswind Factors | p. 203 |
Lateral Blow-back (Flap-back) | p. 203 |
Weathervane Action | p. 203 |
Effect on tail Rotor Thrust | p. 203 |
Different Types of Takeoffs and Landings | p. 204 |
Downwind Takeoffs and Landings | p. 204 |
Running Takeoff | p. 204 |
Cushion-Creep Takeoff | p. 205 |
Confined Area Takeoff (Towering Takeoff) | p. 205 |
Maximum Performance Takeoff | p. 206 |
Running Landing | p. 206 |
The Zero-Speed Landing | p. 207 |
Operations on Sloping Surfaces | p. 207 |
Sling Operations | p. 208 |
The Equipment | p. 208 |
The Sling | p. 210 |
Ground Handling | p. 211 |
Flying Techniques | p. 212 |
Snagging of Cable or Strap on the Undercarriage before Liftoff | p. 212 |
Never-Exceed Speed (V[subscript ne]) | p. 213 |
Preflight Rigging | p. 213 |
Length of Cable or Strap | p. 213 |
Number and Type of Slings | p. 213 |
Nets | p. 213 |
Pallets | p. 214 |
Load Center of Gravity | p. 214 |
Pilot Action in Case of Helicopter Oscillation | p. 214 |
The Approach | p. 215 |
Types of Slingload | p. 215 |
Horizontal Loads | p. 215 |
Unusual Loads | p. 216 |
Conclusion | p. 219 |
Review 22 p. 220 | |
23 Mountain Flying | p. 221 |
Updrafts and Downdrafts | p. 221 |
Thermal Currents | p. 223 |
Katabatic and Anabatic Winds | p. 224 |
Mechanical Turbulence | p. 224 |
Wind Strength | p. 225 |
Size and Shape of Mountains | p. 226 |
Stability or Instability of Air | p. 226 |
Wind Direction Relative to Mountain Orientation | p. 227 |
Summary | p. 227 |
Valley Flying | p. 227 |
Ridgeline Flying | p. 228 |
The "Standard" Mountain Approach | p. 228 |
General Coinments on Mountain Approaches | p. 230 |
High Attitude Approach Considerations | p. 230 |
Transition | p. 232 |
Ground Effect Considerations on Mountain Sites | p. 232 |
Determining Wind Change during Critical Phases | p. 233 |
Landing Site Selection | p. 233 |
Surface of Sites | p. 233 |
Flight in Areas Covered in Snow and Ice | p. 234 |
Survival Equipment | p. 235 |
Review 23 p. 236 | |
24 Helicopter Icing | p. 237 |
Ice Accretion | p. 237 |
Influence of Temperature and Drop Size | p. 237 |
Water Content of Air | p. 238 |
Kinetic Heating | p. 238 |
Shape of Airfoils and Other Aircraft Components | p. 238 |
Mechanical Flexion and Vibration | p. 239 |
Ice Formation on Blades at Different Temperatures | p. 239 |
Electrical Anti-Icing | p. 240 |
Consequences of Ice Accretion | p. 240 |
Engine Intake Icing | p. 241 |
Review 24 p. 242 | |
25 Helicopter Performance | p. 243 |
Helicopter Performance Factors | p. 243 |
Altitude | p. 243 |
Pressure Altitude | p. 244 |
Density Altitude | p. 246 |
Combined Effect of Pressure and Density Altitude | p. 247 |
Moisture Content of Air | p. 248 |
Aircraft Gross Weight | p. 248 |
External Stores | p. 248 |
The Wind | p. 249 |
Power Check | p. 249 |
Performance Graphs | p. 250 |
Units of Measurement | p. 251 |
Hover Ceiling Graph | p. 252 |
Takeoff Distance over a 50-Foot Obstacle | p. 254 |
Turbine Engine Power Check | p. 256 |
Maximum Gross Weight for Hovering | p. 258 |
Climb Performance | p. 260 |
Range | p. 261 |
Endurance | p. 262 |
Review 25 p. 263 | |
26 Weight and Balance | p. 265 |
Definitions | p. 265 |
Weight | p. 267 |
Balance | p. 267 |
Beyond the Center of Gravity Limits | p. 268 |
Excessive Forward Center of Gravity | p. 268 |
Excessive Aft Center of Gravity | p. 269 |
Summary | p. 269 |
Calculating the Center of Gravity Position | p. 269 |
To Calculate the Longitudinal Center of Gravity Position | p. 271 |
To Calculate the Lateral Takeoff Center of Gravity Position | p. 271 |
Summary | p. 273 |
Effect of External Loads on Center of Gravity Position | p. 273 |
Conclusion | p. 274 |
Review 26 p. 274 | |
Appendix 1 Sample Examination | p. 277 |
Appendix 2 Temperature Conversion | p. 287 |
Appendix 3 Altimeter Setting Conversion | p. 289 |
Appendix 4 Review and Examination Answers | p. 291 |
Glossary | p. 295 |
Index | p. 299 |