Classification, evolution, and the nature of biology

Historically, naturalists who proposed theories of evolution, including Darwin and Wallace, did so in order to explain the apparent relationship of natural classification. This book begins by exploring the intimate historical relationship between patterns of classification and patterns of phylogeny. However, it is a circular argument to use the data for classification. Alec Panchen presents other evidence for evolution in the form of a historically based but rigorously logical argument. This is followed by a history of methods of classification and phylogeny reconstruction including current mathematical and molecular techniques. The author makes the important claim that if the hierarchical pattern of classification is a real phenomenon, then biology is unique as a science in making taxonomic statements. This conclusion is reached by way of historical reviews of theories of evolutionary mechanism and the philosophy of science as applied to biology. The book is addressed to biologists, particularly taxonomists, concerned with the history and philosophy of their subject, and to philosophers of science concerned with biology. It is also an important source book on methods of classification and the logic of evolutionary theory for students, professional biologists, and paleontologists.

Acknowledgements	p. xi
Chapter 1 Introduction	p. 1
Chapter 2 Patterns of Classification	p. 10
I. The scala naturae	p. 11
II. The Linnean hierarchy and the Tree of Porphyry	p. 16
III. Quinarian circles and family trees	p. 23
IV. Grades, phenograms, and cladograms	p. 30
V. Conclusions	p. 38
Chapter 3 Patterns of Phylogeny	p. 41
I. The scala naturae as phylogeny	p. 42
II. Family trees	p. 45
III. Stufenreihen and cladograms	p. 52
IV. Reticulate phylogeny	p. 58
V. Conclusions	p. 59
Chapter 4 Homology and the Evidence for Evolution	p. 62
I. Homology	p. 63
II. The classification of homology	p. 69
III. Vestigial organs	p. 79
IV. Ontogeny and molecular biology	p. 82
Chapter 5 Geological and Geographical Evidence	p. 85
I. The fossil record	p. 85
II. Fossils and transmutation	p. 91
III. Biogeography	p. 97
IV. Conclusions	p. 106
Chapter 6 Methods of Classification: The Development of Taxonomy	p. 109
I. The method of logical division	p. 109
II. Linnean taxonomy	p. 114
III. Post-Linnean taxonomy	p. 117
IV. "Evolutionary classification"	p. 121
V. Conclusions: The historical basis of taxonomy	p. 130
Chapter 7 Methods of Classification: Phenetics and Cladistics	p. 132
I. Phenetics	p. 132
II. Phenetic clustering	p. 144
III. Cladistics	p. 151
IV. Cladistics and fossils	p. 158
Chapter 8 Methods of Classification: the Current Debate	p. 169
I. "The transformation of cladistics"	p. 170
II. Out-groups or ontogeny	p. 181
III. Parsimony	p. 188
Chapter 9 Classification and the Reconstruction of Phylogeny	p. 195
I. The reconstruction of phylogeny	p. 196
II. Molecular distance	p. 204
III. Sequence data	p. 212
Chapter 10 Is Systematics Independent?	p. 225
I. Distances, parsimony, compatibility, or likelihood?	p. 226
II. The hierarchy	p. 237
III. Cladograms, trees, and scenarios	p. 244
Chapter 11 Mechanisms of Evolution: Darwinism and Its Rivals	p. 248
I. Lamarck and "Lamarckism"	p. 250
II. Natural Selection: Darwin and Wallace	p. 254
III. Post-Origin theories	p. 262
Chapter 12 Mechanisms of Evolution: the Synthetic Theory	p. 268
I. "The Modern Synthesis"	p. 270
II. Criticisms of the Synthetic Theory	p. 273
III. Developmental constraints and selection	p. 279
IV. Macroevolution	p. 284
V. Conclusions: The Theory of Natural Selection	p. 294
Chapter 13 Scientific Knowledge	p. 298
I. The problem of induction	p. 300
II. The hypothetico-deductive method	p. 304
III. "Popper and after"	p. 308
IV. Normative, descriptive, sociological, or cognitive?	p. 317
Chapter 14 Philosophy and Biology	p. 323
I. Biological generalisations	p. 326
II. The taxomatic statement	p. 330
III. What is being classified?	p. 333
IV. The hierarchy again	p. 341
V. Propositions in biology	p. 345
VI. Postscript	p. 347
References	p. 349
Author index	p. 387
Subject index	p. 395

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